The Common Factors of Mysticism in Christian Hesychasm, Zen Buddhism, and Islamic Sufism

World Religions

Russell Lewis

Candidate # 0604124

William J. Palmer High School

Supervisor: Steve Kern

May 2002 Session

3899 Words (excluding title, subtitles, references, contents, abstract)

CONTENTS

Contents……………………………1

Abstract…………………………….2

Introduction………………………..3

Development……………………….3

Conclusion………………….…….12

Bibliography……………………..13

ABSTRACT

This essay examines the common elements between mystical sects of three major religions: Christian Hesychasm, Zen Buddhism, and Islamic Sufism, in terms of Abraham Maslow’s Peak Experiences. It shows that between all these religions common elements exist in the mystical experience despite the differences in religion perpetuated by cultural, social, and temporal factors. It examines the preparatory, meditative, and post-experiential dogma regarding the mystical experience from the position of each tradition. Throughout the essay, the elements of the mystical experience as described by each religion which are described in Maslow’s article on Peak Experiences are noted. At the end, the common elements between the three traditions are found to be a feeling of integration within the universe, a sense of equal importance for everything, and a profound impact on the life of the person who underwent the mystical experience. The commonality between the experience in each tradition suggests that the mystical experience is a fundamental human occurrence which any can experience, and find valuable in his or her life, regardless of the differences in the experience created by localisms in time and space (cultural, social and temporal factors).

INTRODUCTION

Mankind has always questioned its existence. Throughout history, the human race has always wondered what its origin and purpose were. This questioning inevitably leads us into the depths of the human soul, providing us with strange and fantastic experiences. From these experiences spring answers to our most pressing religious questions, and these answers in turn give rise to organized religions. Though religions are externally shaped by cultural and historical factors, mysticism lies at the core of each.

Each religion is not exactly the same; each has a different description of the mystical or “peak” experience (PE). These differences are the outcome of differences in the time and place in which the religion was formulated and its interpretation by different cultures. Yet mysticism is at the core of all, and can be understood by anyone. It transcends culture and history.

Mystical experiences are sometimes caused by a physical stimulus, such as is the case with the Whirling Dervishes, and other times they are caused by deliberate meditative focus. The former may be induced by a number of means ranging from ecstatic dance to hallucinogens, while the latter is approached in a much narrower array of methods. Because of this, deliberate meditative focus is the method of mysticism which is more easily examined and whose scope can be exhausted in this essay.

Within Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam, all major religions, there exist sects that practice meditative mysticism. For Christianity, these are the Hesychasts, for Buddhism, Zen monks, and for Islam, Sufism is the mystical practice. Within each of these traditions there exist prescribed preparations for entering into a search for the mystical experience. These preparations are followed up by guidelines for how one goes about communing with the divine or becoming enlightened, and finally each has instructions for prolonging the effects of such an experience so that one does not forget what he or she has learned.

MASLOW’S PEAK EXPERIENCE

Abraham Maslow was one of the first people to objectively examine the mystical experience. His ideas about the Peak Experience bring into question whether different religions are as completely different as they seem at first glance. Perhaps they all share a common core which all can relate to regardless of time or place, regardless of cultural and social factors; a common denominator across human spirituality.

In his article, “The Core-Religious,” Or “Transcendent,” Experience, Abraham Maslow examines the commonality between all religions. He begins by suggesting that every religion (except Confucianism) is based upon the ecstatic experience (or “Peak Experience” (PE)) of “some lonely prophet”, but that anyone can have such experiences. Because this is true, all religions must be based on the same core values brought about by the mystical experience. That which is different in religions, the variance in flavor if you will, is the result of “time-space localisms” and years of distortion caused by reinterpretation. Maslow distinguishes between “legalists”, people who have had no PE and “peakers”, people who have had and accepted a PE. While legalists often administer the religion and distort it due to a lack of understanding, Maslow contends, each peaker “discovers, develops, and retains” his or her own religion. A legalist accepts a religion and all its teachings on faith alone; starts from the structure and then builds spirituality. The peaker does the exact opposite: the framework of the religion is extra, built on top of a Peak Experience, the foundation of his or her spirituality.

Despite the personal nature of the PE, Maslow argues that there are many common elements in each. For instance, during a Peak Experience one sees the universe as being integrated, and also each thing’s importance becomes equal rather than ranked. Also, what Maslow calls B-Cognition (cognition of being) arises, meaning that the person involved “perceives external objects as disconnected from human concern”. That is, material objects become less important. Also, disorientation in time and space often accompanies a PE. “B-Values” tell the peaker that everything is sacred and he or she loses his or her fear or anxiety. Maslow also contends that in a Peak Experience, one transcends dichotomies. Aftereffects include possible religious conversion, and taking on a more free-will based orientation towards the world. PE’s cause one to become more honest. These are some of the twenty-five elements common in PE’s, according to Maslow (White, 1972: 352-364).

CHRISTIAN HESYCHASM

Christianity is a religion that at first glance does not seem concerned with mysticism because our normal perception of it is ritualistic rather than mystical, but a closer look reveals that people can have their own ecstatic experiences within the boundaries of the faith. Even in the Bible itself we see religious mysticism. Paul’s conversion on the road to Damascus certainly fits many of the characteristics of a mystical experience. Firstly, a direct communication with the Lord, that is, a sense of unity with God was present. This is, in a sense, Maslow’s sense of reverence or worship. Paul sees a light “brighter than the sun” (Acts 26.13), which symbolizes Paul’s union with the Lord and the illumination of his spirit. Afterwards, Paul can see nothing, and neither eats nor drinks for three days (Acts 9.2). He is disoriented in time and space, another aspect of the Peak Experience. Also, Paul feels a sense of purpose after his experience, that is, to convert the Gentiles to Christianity. Finally, the fact that Paul is converted fits with Maslow’s description of the Peak Experience as well in that it has a therapeutic or life-changing aftereffect.

Today, Christian monasticism exists throughout the world, and is a major religious society. The tradition of monasticism is almost as old as the religion itself. A particular tradition known as Hesychasm sprung from early Egyptian monks known as the Desert Fathers, and is in many respects similar to other meditative mystical experiences.

In preparation for union with God, each monk must feel some sort of conflict within, most often created by a solitary, renunciate environment. This renunciation is to separate the spirit from the flesh, because “the spirit cannot dwell” in the flesh, which is considered evil in Christian theology (Palamas: 48). A fourteenth-century proponent of the Hesychasts, Gregory Palamas, said that “those who practice mental prayer must liberate themselves from the passions, and reject any contact with objects which obstruct it, for in this way they are able to acquire undisrupted and pure prayer” (Palamas: 49). The Desert Fathers believed in purification. One Father, St.Simeon the Stylite, lived atop a pillar for thirty years. This purity was said to aid in the contemplative life because one could not speak to the Lord with alien thoughts in the soul. (Goleman, 1977: 55). Monks even feared eating meals together because the social interaction might break their “ascetic regime" (Gould, 1993: 142). For every cup of wine a monk named Macarius drank, he denied himself water for a day. One monk, Isodore, even went so far as to reject a meal because “Adam was deceived by food, and forced to dwell outside paradise” (Gould, 1993: 143). Fasting was obviously an integral part of the Desert Fathers’ purification and movement towards union with the lord, but this was merely a preparation for prayer.

Some suggest that the Desert Fathers’ methods must have been derived from the East or spontaneously rediscovered because they bear such close resemblance to Hindu and Buddhist renunciation (Goleman, 1977: 55). The Desert Fathers proposed that one must keep the Lord in mind at all times, a practice that is continued today in many practices, such as the use of rosary beads. The Fathers meditated on a Christian equivalent of a mantra, immersed in a phrase from the scriptures instead of a holy syllable or name of the supreme. An example of this is the Publican prayer: “Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me a sinner”, which was often repeated all day to draw the Fathers into the presence of the Lord. A more legendary prayer is the so-called Jesus prayer. This prayer consists of constantly calling on Christ and resisting all other thoughts. Hesychius, the founder of Hesychasm, taught the usefulness of the Jesus Prayer, and it is practiced in eastern renunciate Christianity to this day because of his influence (Goleman, 1977: 57). To the Desert Fathers, prayer was “an extension of combat” (Gould, 1993: 173), because demons tried to distract monks from prayer, and they also had to withstand the temptations of the world and their brothers’ company destroying their mystical composure.

To keep one’s communion with God, focus had to be kept upon one’s mystical experience. For example, the Jesus Prayer is said at first to require one to “force the lips to repeat the Jesus Prayer” (Palamas: 127), but in time becomes internalized, “and finally as self-activating as an unceasing rhythm within the heart, even during sleep” (Palamas: 127). Also, the Desert Fathers had a great respect for each other’s experiences, not interrupting them, and not sharing them unnecessarily with others. For example, in the following story about a monk named Abba John, another monk shows respect by not interrupting his experience:

One of the old men came into the cell of Abba John, and found him asleep. And an angel was standing by and fanning him. When he saw this he withdrew. When John got up he said to his disciple, ‘Did anyone come while I was asleep?’ He said ‘Yes’- such and such an old man. Then Abba John Knew that the old man was of his stature, and had seen the angel. (Palamas, 1983: 173)

This respect made it easier for the Desert Fathers to maintain their union with God for longer. This was combined with the idea of always keeping God in mind, which applied not only to prayer but everyday life, to keep these monks immersed in ecstasy.

ZEN BUDDHISM

Another great tradition of meditative ecstaticism is found in Zen Buddhism. Originating in China, and brought via trade routes, Zen came to play a large part in Japanese culture. Unlike Hesychasm or Sufism, where one seeks to commune with God, the student of Zen does not appeal to a divine intervention or to scriptures, but is instead encouraged to work towards enlightenment for him or herself (White, 1974: 204). Though many ancient sects still exist from the rich history of this tradition (Kraft, 1988: 140-156), Zen has become very well known in the last century thanks to the advent of the communications age. Oddly enough, Zen has become popularly known in the western world while Christian forms of mysticism are relatively unknown, though Christianity is the dominant religion in the west. This stems perhaps from the Western preconception that Christianity is primarily ritualistic and based on logic, while “outside cultures” are more likely to deal with mysticism and “the occult”.

In preparation to become a Zen monk, one must first spend at least few years of “severe discipline” in the Semmon Dojo, or “seat of perfect wisdom” (Suzuki, 1934: 3). Similar to the Desert Fathers’ monastery, there is little outside distraction here. Unnecessary labor is encouraged, whereas commercialism, womanly kindness, science, comfort, and luxury are all absent and are instead replaced by devotion (Suzuki, 1934: 4). Here too, purity is emphasized as a path to the religious experience (in this case enlightenment). But unlike Christian monks, Zen Buddhist monks are encouraged to make pilgrimages in search of the truth and hence do not remain in one place, but go out into the world (Suzuki, 1934: 5). Purification is an important element in the Zen tradition. A new monk applying to a brotherhood is always refused acceptance and forced to sit outside for at least an entire day. After being admitted he must sit alone, with all watching him for anywhere from two days to a week before he is admitted to the brotherhood. This practice purifies the applicant and prepares him for the monastic life, just as the Desert Fathers abstained from food and contact for their own spiritual purity (Suzuki, 1934: 9-11) (Kraft, 1988: 25-28).

Unlike Christian Hesychasm, Zen Buddhism combines many methods to reach enlightenment. Not only do Zen monks engage in a form of prayer, in this case Zazen, to reach communion with the divine, but they also must attempt to answer illogical questions known as koans. The combination of these paths leads a Zen initiate to an ecstatic experience.

Zazen is the Japanese form of the Chinese word Tso-ch’an, which means “sitting meditation", and is the central type of meditation in the Zen tradition. To meditate in Zazen, one usually sits on the floor in either the full or half-lotus position. These positions differ from each other mainly in the placement of the legs and feet, which are folded in some way or another depending upon the position. After having secured an optimal position for meditation, one might begin by focusing on the breath, counting it and ignoring random thoughts. This meditation is said to yield centeredness, calmness, and clarity to the practitioner, all of which are useful in the breaking of preconceptions and bringing one closer to realizing the true nature of the world and reach satori (Kraft, 1988: 30-33) (Smith, 1998:111-112). Eventually the practitioner is expected to abandon counting breaths and move on to Shikantaza ("nothing but sitting" meditation), and simply sit quietly, thinking nothing (Maguire, 2001: 133).

Koans supplement Zazen in the enlightenment of a disciple of Zen Buddhism. Though a Koan simply means “a time and space where truth manifest”, it is more commonly understood as a tool for reaching insight (Kraft, 1988: 70). A Koan is given to a student by a teacher in the form of a story, perhaps a bit of dialogue, such as Joshu’s Mu: “A Monk asked Master Joshu, ‘Does a dog have a Buddha-nature?’ Joshu replied, ‘Mu’.” The student must then attempt to come up with some explanation for the story and report it to the master. Regardless of his explanation, the teacher rejects him and sends him back to meditate upon it further. After an immense frustration at his inability to solve the riddle (Goleman, 1977: 92), the student finally realizes that the Koan is not an intellectual process and simply becomes “lost in Mu”. The student becomes the Koan rather than trying to examine it logically. Here is the transcendence of dichotomies as discussed by Maslow.

After an extensive combination of meditation and koans, a Zen student will reach satori, a breakthrough experience in which their entire world-view is altered forever (White, 1972: 204). Satori is the primary goal of Zen Buddhism, and is characterized by a feeling that all is void, empty (Goleman, 1977: 95), and a lack of need to grasp the things that come to mind, that is, an ability to let thoughts flow naturally. Everything is equally important, not to be grasped, another important aspect of the Peak Experience. The universe is the “totality of being, of which oneself and all other objects are manifestations” (White, 1972: 216). Again, the universe is integrated, an aspect of Maslow’s PE, as are B-values: the belief stemming from a PE that everything is sacred.

In order to keep a satori alive, teachers stress the need for further meditation upon it. When satori has been thoroughly meditated upon, one comes to accept all the facts of existence as they come, without reaction. Every phenomenon is perceived “without evaluation or attachment” (Goleman, 1977: 94-5). This could qualify as Maslow’s B-cognition, in which the concerns of the world are disconnected from humankind. In the end, the Zen student has come to realize the impermanence of all things, and that all things are void, yet continues to act in the world nonetheless (Goleman, 1977: 95). Zen satori experience is kept alive by further satoris and meditation upon them, and by Nanto koans that integrate insight into regular life (Kraft, 1988: 70-80).

SUFISM

A third tradition of mysticism is that of Sufism. Sufism, a branch of Islam, began in the ninth century in Alexandria, Egypt, about two hundred years after the prophet Muhammad’s death (Haeri, 1993: 4). Sufism has a rich history of mystical practice, and is not only confined to meditation but also encompasses physical mysticism such as the Whirling Dervishes, founded by Jelaluddin Rumi, who was also the writer of many great volumes of mystical poetry (Barks, 1995: xvii-xix). The meditative branch of Sufism is seen as more imperative; even the Whirling Dervishes engage in Dhikr before performing a dance (Goleman, 1977: 61).

According to the Sufis, the everyday man is “asleep”, and needs a shock to be awakened. Normally he is trapped in suffering by strong habits, he is a slave to them. This part of man is called “nafs”, which means “ego”, or “essence” (Frager, 1997: 65), and is the lower part of man to which most are bound. Nafs attempts to get us to do the opposite of what our conscience tells us to (Frager, 1997: 66). This parallels the evil flesh that Christianity says we must escape. Man has been taught to think, feel, and perceive in a certain way and Sufism can help him to escape through such “shocks” (Goleman, 1977: 66), much like Zen’s Koans, that “shock” a monk from his everyday dualities. In preparation for Sufist worship, purity in the form of renunciation is encouraged much as in Hesychasm and Zen. Sufis, like the disciples of the Desert Fathers and Zen students, seek a master to guide them in their quest (Haeri, 1993: 31). In order to receive God’s gifts, one must perform certain acts in preparation. First, the Sufi vows to devote himself to spirituality and give up worldly life. This pledge is followed by many self-purifying acts, a major struggle against carnality, which is aided by solitude. A Sufi may give up things he would normally be allowed, for the sake of purity. The reason for such renunciation is that Sufis believe that the individual has been separated from God and merely needs to “step out” of himself to merge with the Divine (Goleman, 1977: 63). It is as if the body is a capsule that is not soluble in the divinity all around us, similar to the Christian impurity of flesh, and to escape it is to merge with the divine. Finally, the religious experience begins when he comes to accept things the way they are because God has ordained them so (Goleman, 1977: 63). Sufi teachings always change to meet the particular situation, so no fixed dogma exists regarding the full spiritual path, but rather is constructed by the master to meet the particular situation (Goleman, 1977: 64). This is similar to how a Zen master might choose a different Koan for his student depending upon his spiritual development.

The main meditation among Sufis is “Dhikr”, which means remembrance, and is the repetition of a sacred word or phrase, exactly like mantra-style prayers of the Hesychasts. Like the Jesus prayer, it constantly reminds the devotee of God; “There is no god but God” (Vaughan-Lee, 1995: 53). Dhikr can be chanted in a group or solitarily, orally or internally. It becomes internalized and natural after some time no matter how it is practiced, and “sings in our bloodstream” (Vaughan-Lee, 1995: 55). This is again like the Jesus Prayer, in which one must at first “force the lips to say” but later becomes internalized (Palamas, 1983: 127). Reason is completely abandoned, just like in the Zen koans, because Sufi meditation is felt in the heart rather than in the mind, swallowing the Sufi in an ocean of love (Vaughan-Lee, 1995: 67-69). The goal of Dhikr is to control the mind’s inattention and carelessness (Goleman, 1977: 61). Mastery of Dhikr occurs when it is focused upon without thought, and all other thoughts have been driven out. Like Zazen and the Jesus Prayer, this meditation clears the mind of all thoughts but those of God. At the point of mastery the Sufi has cast aside his self and the world and merged with God (Goleman, 1977: 63). According to the Sufi Hadith, “there is a polish for everything that taketh away rust; and the polish for the heart is the invocation of Allah” (Vaughan-Lee, 1995: 51). The Sufi also have stories that they tell to “shock” a student into development. These stories have many layers of meaning, and different people will get different meanings from them. Like Zen Koans, these might be chosen by a master to teach a student a particular spiritual lesson. (Goleman, 1977: 67). After any intensive meditation session, the Sufi is expected to remember old habits and begin to fall into them again; the degree to which he does not constitutes his spiritual progress (Goleman, 1977: 62).

A Sufi who has reached the utmost fulfillment is always stable, unchanged by the circumstances around him, like a Zen master. On the outside a Sufi master appears calm, but inside he is “drunk” (Goleman, 1977: 67). He feels subject to God’s will rather than his own. This is unlike Maslow’s description of the PE, in which one moves to a free-will orientation. He is truthful (in the PE one is honest), without desire (B-cognition), altruistic, generous, fearless (loss of fear or anxiety), and always remembers God. After having realized God, Sufis are encouraged to leave a renunciate life, a contrast to other traditions, especially Hesychasm. Rather than sitting in a cave, not giving anything to the world, they go out and “bring light and love into the marketplace of everyday life” (Vaughan-Lee, 1995: 155), much like the Zen monks make pilgrimages into the outside world. He is “in the world but not of it”, because he can act as an individual and yet be detached from worldly desires and weaknesses. Though the Sufi has seen the reality of the world (has merged with God), he continues to function as an individual, only now he is perfected (Goleman, 1977: 64). A Sufi must be careful not to use renunciation as another guise for the ego, but as a path to purity and union with the divine (Vaughan-Lee, 1995: 157). Sufis remember that everywhere is the face of God in the outer world, and through this are able to keep their experience alive. Like Zazen meditation on the satori, and Hesychast remembrance of God, Sufis keep the mystical experience alive through mindfulness.

PARALELLS

Each mystical tradition contains many elements of Maslow’s Peak Experience, but only some overlap. For example, in each of these traditions, one who has a mystical experience sees the universe as being integrated. Both Hesychasts and Sufists find everything to be filled with God, whereas Zen Buddhists see everything as void. Similarly, everything becomes of equal importance after a mystical experience in each tradition. For Hesychasts, all is pervaded with the love of God. For Zen Buddhists, all is void and purposeless, detached from human concern (Maslow’s B-cognition), a point of view shared by Sufists who continue to act although nothing is of consequence. Finally, each tradition claims some sort of life-changing effect after a mystical experience. By their very nature, these traditions draw people to them with the promise of a new world-view. Hesychasts commune with God and so can see the world from a more divine viewpoint. Zen Buddhists transcend dichotomies and see the world as it truly is. Sufists prepare themselves to enter the world and spread love because they have experienced divinity. These three aspects of the mystical experience are shared by each tradition.

CONCLUSION

It seems that Maslow was partly right about the elements of the mystical experience. Though these traditions share only three aspects of Maslow’s Peak Experience, proving that all the twenty-five aspects of a Peak Experience that he observed are not present in each one, this is still a significant parallel between seemingly completely different religions. All three traditions focus on renunciation for purity, a meditative path to communion with the divine or void, and finally, mindfulness to keep the mystical experience alive within the follower. In each, the mystical experience is marked by an integrated universe, equal importance of all things, and a change in the life of one who has had a Peak Experience. Though each religion’s mystical experience is colored by the method used to achieve it and the setting (cultural, social, or temporal) in which it is achieved, the mystical experience is a fundamental human experience which can be experienced by all people across the boundaries of time and space.

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